Analysis of Theory Z of Management

Analysis of Theory Z of Management THEORY Z Definition It is a management theory developed by William Ouchi, describing the Japanese system of management characterized by the workers deep involvement in management, higher productivity than the U.S. Management model, and a highly developed system of organizational and sociological rewards. Ouchi contends that this management system can be used anywhere with equal success. Theory Z is an approach to management based upon a combination of American and Japanese management philosophies and characterized by, among other things, long-term job security, consensual decision making, slow evaluation and promotion procedures, and individual responsibility within a group context. Proponents of Theory Z suggest that it leads to improvements in organizational performance. The following sections highlight the development of Theory Z, Theory Z as an approach to management including each of the characteristics noted above, and an evaluation of Theory Z. Realizing the historical context in which Theory Z emerged is helpful in understanding its underlying principles. The following section provides this context. DEVELOPMENT OF THEORY Z Knowing the historical context in which Theory Z emerged is helpful in understanding its underlying principles. Theory Z has been called a sociological description of the humanistic organizations advocated by management pioneers such as Elton Mayo, Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert, and Douglas McGregor. In fact, the descriptive phrase, Theory Z. can be traced to the work of Douglas McGregor in the 1950s and 1960s. McGregor, a psychologist and college president, identified a negative set of assumptions about human nature, which he called Theory X, while those he categorised in Theory Y were more positive about human nature as it relates to employees. In McGregors view, managers who adopted Theory Y beliefs would exhibit different, more humanistic, and ultimately more effective management styles. McGregors work was read widely, and Theory Y became a well-known prescription for improving management practices. But in the 1970s and 1980s, many United States industries lost market share to international competitors, particularly Japanese companies. Concerns about the competitiveness of U. S. companies led some to examine Japanese management practices for clues to the success enjoyed by many of their industries. This led to many articles and books purporting to explain the success of Japanese companies. It was in this atmosphere that Theory Z was introduced into the management lexicon. This theory was presented by William Ouchi in his 1981 book, à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¹Ã…“Theory Z: How American Management can meet Japanese Challenge. Ouchi is Professor of Management at UCLA, Los Angeles, and a board member of several large US organisations. Theory Z was first identified as a unique management approach by William Ouchi. Ouchi contrasted American types of organizations (Type A) that were rooted in the United States tradition of individualism with Japanese organizations (Type J) that drew upon the Japanese heritage of collectivism. He argued that an emerging management philosophy, which came to be called Theory Z, would allow organizations to enjoy many of the advantages of both systems. Professor Ouchi advocated a modified American approach to management that would capitalize on the best characteristics of Japanese organizations while retaining aspects of management that are deeply rooted in U.S. traditions of individualism. Ouchi cited several companies as examples of Type Z organizations and proposed that a Theory Z management approach could lead to greater employee job satisfaction, lower rates of absenteeism and turnover, higher quality products, and better overall financial performance for U.S. firms adapting Theory Z management practices. THEORY Z AS AN APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT Theory Z represents a humanistic approach to management. Although it is based on Japanese management principles, it is not a pure form of Japanese management. Instead, Theory Z is a hybrid management approach combining Japanese management philosophies with U.S. culture. In addition, Theory Z breaks away from McGregors Theory Y. Theory Y is a largely psychological perspective focusing on individual dyads of employer-employee relationships while Theory Z changes the level of analysis to the entire organization. According to Professor Ouchi, Theory Z organizations exhibit a strong, homogeneous set of cultural values that are similar to clan cultures. The clan culture is characterized by homogeneity of values, beliefs, and objectives. Clan cultures emphasize complete socialization of members to achieve congruence of individual and group goals. Although Theory Z organizations exhibit characteristics of clan cultures, they retain some elements of bureaucratic hierarchies, such as formal authority relationships, performance evaluation, and some work specialization. Proponents of Theory Z suggest that the common cultural values should promote greater organizational commitment among employees. EVALUATION OF THEORY Z Research into whether Theory Z organizations outperform others has yielded mixed results. Some studies suggest that Type Z organizations achieve benefits both in terms of employee satisfaction, motivation, and commitment as well as in terms of financial performance. Other studies conclude that Type Z organizations do not outperform other organizations. Difficulties in the Japanese economy in the 1990s led some researchers to suggest that the widespread admiration of Japanese management practices in the 1970s and 1980s might have been misplaced. As a result, Theory Z has also received considerable criticism. It is unclear whether Theory Z will have a lasting impact on management practices in the U. S. and around the world into the twenty-first century, but by positioning target research at the organizational level rather then the individual level, Ouchi will surely leave his mark on management practice for years to come. Management Concepts Motivation: Believes that people are innately self motivated to not only do their work, but also are loyal towards the company, and want to make the company succeed. Leadership: Theory Z managers would have to have a great deal of trust that their workers could make sound decisions. Therefore, this type of leader is more likely to act as coach, and let the workers make most of the decisions. Power and Authority: The managers ability to exercise power and authority comes from the workers trusting management to take care of them, and allow them to do their jobs. The workers have a great deal of input and weight in the decision making process. Conflict: Conflict in the Theory Z arena would involve a great deal of discussion, collaboration, and negotiation. The workers would be the ones solving the conflicts, while the managers would play more of a third party arbitrator role. Performance Appraisals: Theory Z emphasises more frequent performance appraisals, but slower promotions. THE PRIMARY FEATURES OF THEORY Z 1. Long-Term Employment Traditional U.S. organizations are plagued with short-term commitments by employees, but employers using more traditional management perspective may inadvertently encourage this by treating employees simply as replaceable cogs in the profit-making machinery. In the United States, employment at will, which essentially means the employer or the employee can terminate the employment relationship at any time, has been among the dominant forms of employment relationships. Conversely, Type J organizations generally make life-long commitments to their employees and expect loyalty in return, but Type J organizations set the conditions to encourage this. This promotes stability in the organization and job security among employees. 2. Consensual Decision Making The Type Z organization emphasizes communication, collaboration, and consensus in decision making. This marks a contrast from the traditional Type A organization that emphasizes individual decision-making. 3. Individual Responsibility Type A organizations emphasize individual accountability and performance appraisal. Traditionally, performance measures in Type J companies have been oriented to the group. Thus, Type Z organizations retain the emphasis on individual contributions that are characteristic of most American firms by recognizing individual achievements, albeit within the context of the wider group. 4. Slow Evaluation And Promotion The Type A organization has generally been characterized by short-term evaluations of performance and rapid promotion of high achievers. The Type J organization, conversely, adopts the Japanese model of slow evaluation and promotion. 5. Informal Control With Formalized Measures The Type Z organization relies on informal methods of control, but does measure performance through formal mechanisms. This is an attempt to combine elements of both the Type A and Type J organizations. 6. Moderately Specialized Career Path Type A organizations have generally had quite specialized career paths, with employees avoiding jumps from functional area to another. Conversely, the Type J organization has generally had quite non-specialized career paths. The Type Z organization adopts a middle-of-the-road posture, with career paths that are less specialized than the traditional U.S. model but more specialized than the traditional Japanese model. 7. Holistic Concern The Type Z organization is characterized by concern for employees that goes beyond the workplace. This philosophy is more consistent with the Japanese model than the U.S. model. Overview Theory Z is basically the combination of best aspects of Japanese and American theories. The three theories bring forth three types of firms, which is Type J Firms, Type A firms and Type Z firms. To clearly understand the features of theory z an understanding of the theory J and Theory A is necessary. Features of theory J: Lifetime Employment Collective decision making Collective responsibility Slow promotion Implied control mechanisms Non specialised career Paths Holistic concern of employees. Features of Theory A: Short term employment Individual decision making Individual Responsibility Rapid promotion Explicit Control mechanism Specialized career paths Segmented concern for employees Theory Z picks the best feature from each and either incorporates it as it is, or slightly modifies the feature. The end result is the Theory Z which is referred to as Best choice for American firms. Features of Theory Z: Long-term employment Collective decision making Individual responsibility Slow promotion Informal Control Moderately specialized career paths Holistic concern for employees CONCLUSION According to Ouchi, Theory Z management tends to promote stable employment, high productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction. Theory Z is focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and off the job.

Solving Prison Overcrowding with Drug Courts

Elizabeth Johnson was a model student. She was characterized by her teachers as hardworking, driven, and goal oriented. After being placed on the honor roll and graduating early from Morris High School in Will County, Illinois, she attended Northern Illinois University to become a lawyer. Within her first year at college, her life derailed. She was caught by the police and arrested for possession of marijuana. Johnson was expecting to be placed in prison but she found herself in a drug court, which assigned her mandatory drug rehabilitation. After graduating from the rehabilitation program, she went back to school at John Marshall Law School, and passed the bar exam. Now, after seven years of completing the drug program, she has not relapsed and works as a District Attorney for Will County. However, stories like Johnson’s aren’t common. For every story like hers, there are hundreds of stories where the drug user would be sent to prison, shattering his or her future (Cain). Our prisons, now host thousands of non-violent drug users. These prisons have high upkeep costs, and have led to overcrowding in some states (United States, Department of Justice). The establishment of drug courts, throughout the nation, would result in less economic costs to America, while still rehabilitating drug users successfully. Currently a large part of the Federal budget goes to the criminal justice system and more specifically in stopping drug abuse. In 2005, the government spent 135. 8 billion dollars stopping substance abuse and addiction (Lyons). This money is spent on creating new rehabilitation programs and testing facilities for drug users to attend. However, drug users attend these programs on a voluntary basis. They are able to join and leave the programs at any time (Lyons). The Federal Government is spending billions on increasing rehabilitation facilities available, but is still sending drug users to prison. The courts still assign prison as sentences for drug users, as opposed to rehabilitation (Vrecko). Now, the Department of Justice needs another $6. 172 billion, on top of their current budget, for the rise in costs of federal prisons (United States, Office of Management and Budget). Our current drug policy is failing to match the Federal Government’s initiative for rehabilitation. The current drug policy and harsh punishments has led to prison overcrowding. The New York Times reported that in California, there has been an increase of 45,000 drug users in prison. This increase has fostered the argument of California’s prisons being overcrowded. California’s prison system is overcrowded with 145% capacity. There has now been a surge of cases to the Supreme Court about the constitutionality of the prisons (Liptak). Much of the problem of prison overcrowding has been linked to drug users. In 2009, the Federal Bureau of Prisons reported that 51. percent of prisoners are in prison for drug related charges. For comparison, in 1995, the number of prisoners for drug related charges was 26. 7 percent. (United States. Department of Justice. ) The number of prisoners has nearly doubled due to harsher drug policies stricter punishments. Like California, many states are dealing with a surge in drug users in prison which has resulted in an increase in upkeep costs. For example, Washington will need to build three new prisons to ensure the constitutionality of their prisons. Peter Aldhous, who earned his PhD from the University of California Berkley, wrote that each prison will cost $250 million to build and an additional $45 million to run each year. Unless Washington changes some of its drug policies, they will likely see a continued rise in the amount of drug users in prison and â€Å"prison upkeep costs†. Moreover, Aldhous expects 4. 1 billion dollars to be spent on new prisons across the nation over the next decade. While this is a long-term cost to states, many states will need new beds and other items for their prisons. In Texas, the prisons will require 17,000 new beds (Lyons). In addition, states will have to hire more prison guards. In the end, the short term cost to the state may be around 1 million dollars (Mergenhagen). As the number of overcrowded prisons rises, drug usage while in prison also increases. Many drug users in prison have the ability to meet their friends and family on visits. During these visits, drugs have been given to the drug user in prison. However, the drugs that are exchanged are drugs that are hard to be traced during urine tests. As a result, inject able drugs, which leave no trace in urine, are the most likely to be exchanged. The drugs are then used in the prison cells where other cellmates may use the drug as well. In a study comprising of 13 prisons, the range of prisoners who used injectable drugs while incarcerated was 16% to 54%. (Lines). When sharing injectable drugs, the prisoners also share the needle. This has disastrous effects on the health of the prisoners. Sharing needles causes an increase likelihood of contracting diseases like HCV, HBV, and HIV (Lines). Another study, which looked at 43 prisons, found that the average HIV/AIDS prevalence is 3%. However, specifically in New York, the prevalence was 12. % (Mergenhagen). Outside of prison, America has a HIV/AIDS prevalence of . 3% (United States. Department of Health and Human Services). Drug users in prison are 10 times more likely to contract HIV/AIDS versus the average population. Finally, the recidivism rate has not fallen with the harsher drug policy. Within two years of being released from prison, 32% of the drug users are incarcerated again for drug charges (Fox). This high recidivism rate furthers the idea that the inmates are not receiving the proper attention in prison to deal with their drug addiction. Drug users are sent to prison typically at a young age similar to Johnson. In prison, they do not receive any â€Å"additional education, job training, or counseling. † They are then released back into society without any new resources to succeed. Instead, they carry a record which impairs them from obtaining jobs, and the psychological problems of being behind bars for an extended period of time (Phlisher). The recidivism rate remaining high, and lack of resources for individuals to succeed points to the need for a new solution rather than prison. â€Å"Drug courts† are the ideal solution. These drug courts are separate from the normal criminal court. Dr. Scott Vrecko, who obtained his PhD from the London School of Economics, claims that drug courts are specifically made for sending drug users to a rehabilitative program. If the judge feels as if the individual would be more successful in a â€Å"rehabilitative program as opposed to prison†, he or she will send the drug user to a program of the judge’s choice. If the drug user fails the program, he or she will be sent to prison. This option gives them the ability to have â€Å"education, job training, and counseling† while in rehab. However, the availability of drug courts is limited to only a few states with Florida being the largest. In these states, they have great success on limiting the toll that prisons bear for drug users. Yet, only 6% of drug users in the nation have access to a drug court (Gorsman). 6% is too small to have any far reaching impact across the nation. Increasing the number of drug courts available to the nation on a federal level would have a strong effect on lowering the cost for prisons and reducing the recidivism rate. The creation of drug courts would have a beneficial economic impact. First, it would lower the percentage of drug users in prison from 51. 4% to around 17% (Berman). This would vastly lower the economic costs of maintaining the prisons. Moreover, it would only cost 1. 2 billion dollars to create drug courts throughout the nation (Gorsman). The proposed 1. 2 billion dollars is a fraction of 135. 8 billion dollars the nation already pays for the creation of rehabilitative programs (Lyons). The rehabilitative programs are already built and running. These drug courts would enforce mandatory attendance to the program. In fact, it would save about 1. million dollars per 200 people per year. (Lyons). The estimated savings would easily cover the costs of creating the drug courts after a few years. Many of the drug users in prison are not there on their first arrest, but their second and third arrest. The largest drawback of the prison system, is its inability to reduce recidivism. However, drug courts have become more effective at reducing recidivism. In one study, the recidivism rate was 4% to 8% after two years of being released from the program (Berman). This number is significantly lower than the 32% recidivism rate for drug users who go to prison (Fox). The most extensive study was done by Brenda Newton-Taylor an M. D. from Stanford. The study involved 432 participants and factored out eight different variables including â€Å"length of drug usage, race, gender, income, and the specific drug used†. They found a recidivism rate at 6% for those who graduated from the rehabilitative program. Furthermore, those that failed the program used drugs less often than before after being released from prison. On average they used drugs about a third as much as they used to. This resulted in the individuals having better jobs and maintaining better lives. The creation of drug courts have been effective in reducing the recidivism rate and lowering the cost on prisons. Many of the present arguments against the establishments of drug courts is related to a theoretical rise in drug users due to a less severe punishment. However, this idea has been empirically disproved. In the certain areas where drug courts are present in America, such as Florida, there has not been a statistically significant increase in the amount of drug usage or drug users (Marlowe). Much of this has been applied to the continued social stigmatization of drugs. Although some states have taken a shift in their drug policy, the stigmatization of drugs still exists. Further, although the mandatory treatment program is not as harsh as prison, it is still not an appealing punishment (Marlowe). The average length to graduate from the program is about 8 months (Newton-Taylor). The time required to graduate still deters individuals from using drugs. If they fail the program, they will be sent to jail which still acts as a deterrent. (Marlowe). The argument of increased drug consumption lacks empirical evidence. The establishment of drug courts throughout the nation would help to solve some of the pressing needs of overcrowding within state prisons and the stagnant recidivism rates. Elizabeth Johnson has been pleading her case to the Illinois state government for the creation of drug courts in every county. Many representatives have joined her support of drug courts, and Illinois has seen large strides in reforming their drug policies. (Cain. ) With many large states such as Florida shifting to drug courts, the push for the federal government to enact the change will undoubtedly follow.

Blumea Balsamifera (Sambong) Leaves Extract as an...

Blumea balsamifera (sambong) LEAVES EXTRACT AS AN ALTERNATIVE MOSQUITO REPELLENT Yves Joey P. Flores Indira P. Salih Amina Shayne B. Halil Richard Bryle P. Taub Giosimon P. Dimaculangan Shaheed A. Jalad Proponents (VII-Einstein) REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL FOR REGION IX Malasiga, San Roque, Zamboanga City Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirement In Research I (Technical Writing I and Basic Statistics) Mrs. Edna Natividad Mrs. Mercelita Medallo Technical Writing I Basic Statistics Teacher February 22, 2013 Table of Contents Approval Sheet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦i†¦show more content†¦2) Which of the treatments is the least effective in repelling mosquitoes? C. Statement of Hypothesis 1) The treatment with 100% extract particularly the sambong leaves, in avoiding harmful mosquito bites since the sambong leaves extract is least effective than the others. 2.) The treatment with 45% extract particularly the sambong leaves, 20% water or 65% sambong infused water, 20% citric acid, 15% vodka, in avoiding harmful mosquito bites is most effective. D. Significance of the Study Nowadays, Everyone hates mosquito, people will do almost anything to get rid from the bite of mosquito. Beginning with the basic fly swatter, anti-pest products have come a long way. 1 Nowadays, a lot of gadgets have been invited to a lleviate all sorts of flying insect infestations.Mosquito coils are one of the most traditional gadgets to keep you away from mosquito. Female mosquitoes can reproduce even without mating. During rainy days they give or lay eggs from one hundred to three hundred eggs at a time. E. Scopes and Limitations This study focuses on the effectiveness of dried banana, (musa acuminata) peeling as mosquito coil. The separate dried peeling of the banana, citric acid, cassava starch and the combination of both materials are to be tested. The researchers would need sufficient time ( about one-two months) and budget for the implementation of the

Facts and Geography of Honduras

Honduras is a country located in Central America on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. It is bordered by Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador and has a population of just under eight million. Honduras is considered a developing nation and is the second poorest country in Central America. Fast Facts: Honduras Official Name: Republic of HondurasCapital: Tegucigalpa  Population: 9,182,766 (2018)Official Language: SpanishCurrency: Lempira (HNL)Form of Government: Presidential republic  Climate: Subtropical in lowlands, temperate in mountains  Total Area: 43,278 square miles (112,090 square kilometers)Highest Point: Cerro Las Minas at 9,416 feet (2,870 meters)Lowest Point: Caribbean Sea at 0 feet (0 meters) History of Honduras Honduras has been inhabited for centuries by various native tribes. The largest and most developed of these were the Mayans. European contact with the area began in 1502 when Christopher Columbus claimed the region and named it Honduras (which means depths in Spanish) because the coastal waters surrounding the lands were very deep. In 1523, Europeans began to further explore Honduras when Gil Gonzales de Avila entered the then-Spanish territory. A year later, Cristobal de Olid established the colony of Triunfo de la Cruz on behalf of Hernan Cortes. Olid however, tried to establish an independent government but was later assassinated. Cortes then formed his own government in the city of Trujillo. Shortly thereafter, Honduras became a part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Throughout the mid-1500s, native Hondurans worked to resist Spanish exploration and control of the region but after several battles, Spain took control of the area. Spanish rule over Honduras lasted until 1821 when the country gained its independence. Following its independence from Spain, Honduras was briefly under the control of Mexico. In 1823, Honduras joined the United Provinces of Central America federation, which collapsed in 1838. During the 1900s, Hondurass economy was centered on agriculture and particularly on United States-based companies that formed plantations throughout the country. As a result, the countrys politics were focused on ways to maintain the relationship with the U.S. and keep foreign investments. With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, Hondurass economy began to suffer and from that time until 1948, the authoritarian General Tiburcio Carias Andino controlled the country. In 1955, the government was overthrown and, two years later, Honduras had its first elections. In 1963, however, a coup took place and the military again ruled the country throughout much of the later 1900s. During this time, Honduras experienced instability. From 1975–1978 and 1978–1982, Generals Melgar Castro and Paz Garcia ruled Honduras, during which time the country grew economically and developed much of its modern infrastructure. Throughout the rest of the 1980s and into the next two decades, Honduras experienced seven democratic elections. The country developed its modern constitution in 1982. Government After more instability in the later 2000s, Honduras today is considered a democratic constitutional republic. The executive branch is made up of the chief of state and the head of state — both of which are filled by the president. The legislative branch is comprised of the unicameral Congress of Congreso Nacional and the judicial branch is made up of the Supreme Court of Justice. Honduras is divided into 18 departments for local administration. Economics and Land Use Honduras is the second poorest country in Central America and has a highly uneven distribution of income. Most of the economy is based on exports. The largest agricultural exports from Honduras are bananas, coffee, citrus, corn, African palm, beef, timber shrimp, tilapia, and lobster. Industrial products include sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing, wood products, and cigars. Geography and Climate Honduras is located in Central America along the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Oceans Gulf of Fonseca. Since it is located in Central America, the country has a subtropical climate throughout its lowlands and coastal areas. Honduras has a mountainous interior, which has a temperate climate. Honduras is also prone to natural disasters like hurricanes, tropical storms, and flooding. For example, in 1998, Hurricane Mitch destroyed much of the country and wiped out 70% of its crops, 70-80% of its transportation infrastructure, 33,000 homes, and killed 5,000 people. In 2008, Honduras experienced severe flooding and almost half of its roads were destroyed.